1Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
Myanmar, officially the Union of Myanmar (pronounced [pjìdàunzṵ mjəmà nàinŋàndɔ̀]) is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. On 4 January1948, Burma achieved independence from Great Britain as the “Union of Burma”. Subsequent name changes were on 4 January1974, to the “Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma”; 23 September1988, to the “Union of Burma” and, since 18 June1989, the “Union of Myanmar”. Also known as Burma or the Union of Burma by bodies and states which do not recognize the ruling military junta, it is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930 km (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.
Myanmar's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times. Its political system remains under the tight control of the State Peace and Development Council, the military government led by Senior General Than Shwe since 1992. Part of the British Empire until 1948, Myanmar continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions and overcome coups d'état. The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbours, is based on a unique form of Buddhism intertwined with local elements.
The name "Myanmar" is derivative of the local short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw. [1]. This name was used as early as the 12th century, but its etymology remains unclear. It is also the official name of the residents or citizens of Myanmar (written without the final "r" when used as an adjective, as in "the Myanma people"). "Bamar" is more specifically the official name of a person from the majority Burman ethnic group.
In 1989, the military juntaofficially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar, along with changes to the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital city from Rangoon to Yangon. However, the official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar, did not change, though this is often rendered in English as Myanma.
The renaming proved to be politically controversial.Steinberg, David L. (February 2002). Burma: The State of Myanmar. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-87840-893-2. Because the military junta was not legitimately elected, some governments have contended that it did not have the authority to officially change the name in English. This stance has also been adopted by most Burmese who oppose the military regime, but who do not necessarily dispute the semantics.
The Pyu arrived in the 1st century BC and established several city kingdoms which traded with India and China. The most powerful Pyu kingdom was Sri Ksetra, which was subsequently abandoned in 656. The Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid 800s were invaded by the Nanzhao kingdom.
The Burmans, or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day Tibet sometime prior to the 800s. By 849, they had established a powerful kingdom centered on Pagan. During the reign of Anawratha (1044-1077), Burman influence expanded throughout much of present-day Myanmar. By the 1100s, large portions of continental Southeast Asia were controlled by the Pagan Kingdom, commonly called the First Burmese Empire. In the late 1200s, Mongols under Kublai Khan invaded the Pagan Kingdom, but by 1364 the Burmans re-established their kingdom at Ava, where Burmese culture entered a golden age. However, in 1527, the Shan pillaged Ava. Meanwhile, the Mon re-established themselves at Pegu, which became a major commercial and religious centre.
Burmans who had fled from Ava established the Toungoo Kingdom in 1531 at Taungoo, under Tabinshwehti, who re-unified Burma and founded the Second Burmese Empire. Because of growing European influence in Southeast Asia, Toungoo Kingdom became a major trading centre. Bayinnaung expanded the empire by conquering the states of Manipur, Chiang Mai, and Ayutthaya. But internal rebellion and lack of resources to control the acquisitions led to the downfall of Toungoo Kingdom. Anaukpetlun, who had expelled Portuguese invaders, founded a new dynasty at Ava in 1613. Internal rebellion by the Mon aided by France, led to the kingdom's downfall in 1752.
During the reign of King Bagyidaw, in 1824, Mahabandoola captured Assam, adjacent to British territory in India, prompting war. The First Anglo-Burmese War was concluded by a peace treaty in Yandabo, in Central Myanmar, in 1826. The coastal territories of Rakhine (Arakan) and Tanintharyi. In 1851, King Tharawaddy imprisoned some British officials after border skirmishes, which the British used as the pretext for the Second Anglo-Burmese War. This time, the British annexed the remaining coastal provinces - Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago. In 1885, Burmese tax collectors, acting for the King, found out that the Bombay-Burma Teak Company had been illegally logging teak and hiding them in hope of evading tax. The King, Thibaw Min, slapped a fine on the company, which was seen by the British as a opportunity to annex the rest of Burma. In November1885, the Third Anglo-Burmese War was waged, for a period of only two weeks. Thibaw Min and the Royal family were detained and exiled to Madras, and finally Ratnagiri. Burma became a province of British India by late November 1885, and was given as a New Year present to Queen Victoria on 1 January1886. On 1 April1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the Thirty Comrades, led by Aung San, founded the Burma Independence ArmyHoutman, Gustaaf (1999). Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy. ISBN 4-87297-748-3. The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan.
During World War II Burma became a major front in the Southeast Asian Theatre. Initially the Japanese-led Burma Campaign succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the Allies retaliated. By July 1945 they had retaken the country. The Burmese fought for both sides in the war. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese also served in the British Burma Army in 1941-1942. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British control. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the Chindits under General Orde Wingate from 1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created American-Kachin Rangers which also fought for the Allies. Many other Burmese fought with the British Special Operations Executive. The Burma Independence Army under the command of Aung San and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but rose up against the Japanese in 1945.
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameralparliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities.The Constitution of the Union of Burma. DVB (1947). Retrieved on 2006-07-07. The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.Smith, Martin (1991). Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 42-43.
In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secetary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.Aung Zaw. Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes?. The Irrawaddy Sep 2006. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi.
Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'état led by General Ne Win, who ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the Burmese Way to Socialism. In 1974, the funeral of U Thant led to bloody anti-government protests.
In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years. The NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 409 out of a total 489 seats, but the election results were voided by SLORC, which refused to step down.Khin Kyaw Han (2003-02-01). 1990 MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY GENERAL ELECTIONS. National League for Democracy. iBiblio.org. Retrieved on 2006-07-11. SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the English language in 1989. Led by Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new constitution through the National Convention, which began 9 January1993."The National Convention", The Irrawaddy, 2004-03-31. Retrieved on 2006-07-14. In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).
In 1988, the Burmese army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On 8 August1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as 8888 Uprising. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently invalidated by the regime. The National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule in Myanmar, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under house arrest. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure by ASEAN, the Burmese military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons de jure.The Irrawaddy. "Suu Kyi’s Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest", The Irrawaddy, 2006-05-27. Retrieved on 2006-05-27.The Irrawaddy. "Opposition Condemns Extension of Suu Kyi’s Detention", The Irrawaddy, 2006-05-27. Retrieved on 2006-05-27. The junta faces increasing international isolation. Myanmar's situation was referred to the UN Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. In September 2006, 10 of the United Nations Security Council’s 15 members voted to place Burma on the council's formal agenda.The Irrawaddy. "UN Security Council Puts Burma on Agenda", The Irrawaddy, 2006-09-16. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.
Myanmar's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Myanmar because of the military crackdown in 1988 and because of the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar. European Union. Retrieved on 2006-07-13. U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The French oil company Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on Myanmar. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and its American partner Chevron with aid and implementation by the Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. "Dilemma of dealing with Burma", BBC News, 2004-10-20. Retrieved on 2004-11-02. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers."How Best to Rid the World of Monsters", Washington Post, 2003-06-23. Retrieved on 2006-05-24."Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar", Ibiblio, Reuters, 1999-05-10. Retrieved on 2006-06-24.
Myanmar's armed forces is known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000.
Disclaimer: Trademark Logos, Images and content on this page may be subject to copyright and you may need permission from owner to use the image or other content for any purpose.
" width="220" height="148" longdesc="/Image:National_League_for_Democracy.svg" class="thumbimage" />
