For other uses, see Lebanon (disambiguation).

Lebanon (Arabic: لبنان ), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية ), is a small, largely mountainous country in the Middle East, located at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. Lebanon is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. The flag of Lebanon features the Lebanon Cedar in green against a white backdrop, with two horizontal red stripes on the top and bottom.

Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism and banking sectors of the economy.U.S. Department of State. "Background Note: Lebanon (History) August 2005" Retrieved December 2, 2006. It was considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East"USPG. "Anglican Church in Jerusalem responds to the Middle East crisis". Retrieved October 31, 2006.Socialist Party (2005). "A new crisis in the Middle East?". Retrieved October 31, 2006. due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists,Anna Johnson (2006). "Lebanon: Tourism Depends on Stability". Retrieved October 31, 2006. to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."TC Online (2002). "Paris of the Middle East". Retrieved October 31, 2006.

Immediately following the end of the war, there were widespread efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.Canadian International Development Agency. "Lebanon: Country Profile". Retrieved December 2, 2006. By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,Center for the Study of the Built Environment. "Deconstructing Beirut's Reconstruction: 1990-2000". Retrieved October 31, 2006. and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. However, the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict brought mounting civilian and military casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement from July 12, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006. As of September 2006, the Lebanese government has been acting out an early recovery plan aimed at reconstructing property destroyed by Israeli attacks in Beirut, Tyre, and other villages in southern Lebanon.

Etymology

The name Lebanon ("Lubnan" in standard Arabic; "Lebnan" or "Lebnèn" in local dialect) is derived from the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as white and milk. This is regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.Antoine Harb (2004). "Lebanon: A Name through 4000 Years". Retrieved November 1, 2006. Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Elba (2400 BC), and the Bible.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Lebanon

A Middle Eastern country, Lebanon is bordered by the Mediterranean to the west with a 225�km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375�km, while the Lebanon-Israel border is 79�km in length. The border with the Israel-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United NationsTelegraph (2000). "Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement". Retrieved November 1, 2006. (see Blue Line).

Lebanon has a total area of 10,452�km² (4,035�mi²), making it the 178^th largest country in the world.CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Rank Order — Area". Retrieved November 1, 2006. Most of that area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley (an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture).

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below 0°C during the winter with frequent (sometimes heavy) snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.(Bonechi et al.) (2004) Golden Book Lebanon, p. 3, Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 88-476-1489-9 Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall. This is due to the fact that the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.Country Studies US. "Lebanon - Climate". Retrieved November 5, 2006.

Administrative divisions

See also: Governorates of Lebanon�and Districts of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat (Arabic محافظات), singular mohafazah (Arabic محافظة)), which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya, singular: qadaa). The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Lebanon

The population of Lebanon is composed of three predominant ethnic groups and religions: Muslims (Shi'ites, Sunnis, and Alawites), Druze, and Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite Greek Catholics).

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance.Country Studies. "Lebanon Population". Retrieved November 25, 2006. It is estimated that about 40% are Christians, 35% are Shia Muslims, 20% are Sunni Muslims and 5% are Druze CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 7, 2006.. A small minority of Jews live in central Beirut, Byblos, and Bhamdoun. There are also estimated to be between 75,000 and 100,000 Kurds (also known as Mhallamis or Mardins) in Lebanon, who are part of the Sunni population.International Journal of Kurdish Studies, Jan, 2002 by Lokman I. Meho "The Kurds in Lebanon: a social and historical overview"

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006. There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese descent, spread all over the world, Brazil being the country with the biggest Lebanese community abroad.Marina Sarruf (2006). "Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon". Retrieved November 30, 2006. Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela and the US also have large Lebanese communities.

394,532 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948.UNRWA (December 31, 2003). "UNRWA: Palestinian Refugees". Retrieved November 25, 2006. The Palestinians have become a vital part of the Lebanese society, with many of them reaching high posts,^{[citation�needed]} despite the notorious governmental bans on them. It is not only impossible for them to own property,Abbas Shbilak. [http://www.shaml.org/publications/monos/mono1.htm#4.5%20Property%20Ownership "Residency Status and Civil Rights of Palestinian Refugees in Arab Countries"]. Retrieved November 25, 2006. but prior to June 7, 2005 there were 72 professions that they were not allowed to practice in Lebanon.Integrated Regional Information Networks (October 2, 2005). "LEBANON: Palestinian refugees complain they are second class citizens". Retrieved December 2, 2006.

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. U.S. Department of State (1994) Header: People, 4th paragraph. Retrieved December 3, 2006. Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.Backgroung Note: Lebanon "www.washingtoninstitute.org" Retrieved December 3, 2006. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arab countries.United Nations Population Fund."Lebanon - Overview". Retrieved November 9, 2006.

One notable aspect of Lebanon's social system and laws is that when a child is born to one Lebanese parent, that Lebanese child receives Lebanese citizenship only if the father is Lebanese.Integrated Regional Information Networks. "LEBANON: Discrimination against children of foreign fathers". Retrieved November 29, 2006. Citizenship rights are denied to a child born to a Lebanese mother " The Constitution of Lebanon". Retrieved November 27, 2006.Meris Lutz (2006). "CRTD-A Call For Right of All Lebanese To Pass On Nationality". Retrieved November 27, 2006.United Nations (2005). "Women's anti-discrimination Committee Takes Up Lebanon's Report... ". Retrieved November 27, 2006.. Such gender discrimination has moved women's rights groups to support women's nationality rights campaigns.www.learningpartnership.org (2006). [1]. Retrieved December 3, 2006.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Lebanon

Sectors of the economy

Agriculture

Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world.[2]. Retrieved December 2, 2006. However, Lebanon does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforceJean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11, 110-114. Beirut: Dar Habib., agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors.US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 1, 2006.

Industry

Lebanon's lack of industry raw material and complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mostly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population, and also second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.

Services and commerce

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites has continually attracted large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%) have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, since this renders the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

Historical development

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepôt and banking hub. The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.^{[citation�needed]}

Until the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.Bank Audi (2006). "Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd Quarter, 2006". Retrieved November 27, 2005. By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon has already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures. Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.

The war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on August 30, 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.Lebanese Ministry of Finance (2006)."Impact of the July Offensive on the Public Finances in 2006". Retrieved September 24, 2006.

Beirut International airport re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged),Cyrpus News (2006). "Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon's Reconstruction". Retrieved November 26, 2006. the European Union (with about $1 billion)Lebanon Under Siege (2006). "Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon". Retrieved November 26, 2006. and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.Ain-Al-Yaqeen (2006). "The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon...". Retrieved November 27, 2006.

Education

Main article: Education in Lebanon

History of education in Lebanon

The first two ministries to be established for education in Lebanon were the Ministry of Education and Higher Education, and the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, to enrich the Lebanese educational system. In 1946, after independence (22 November 1943) the Lebanese government replaced the old curriculum program, coming from the French mandate, by new ones and the Arabic language was imposed upon all schools as a primary language, mandatory in the different phases of education. The government also left students the freedom to choose a second or third language (French, English, etc).

In 1968 and 1971, the curriculum was changed again. Each step of the educational phases was specified with a defined goal and the contents of the public examinations were also particularized. Before the war, in 1975, Lebanon held one of the highest literacy rates in the Arab world. Over 80% of the Lebanese people could read and write. But ever since then, Lebanon has been in a state of chaos that has consumed its people, due to the civil war and foreign intervention that took place. When the war was declared ‘over’, the Lebanese took a start on rebuilding their cultural society in the educational domain and encouraging education through free and facilitated methods. Lebanon now sports a literacy rate of 88.3%, still among the highest in the Arab World.

Schools in Lebanon

Lebanese schools are divided into three categories: private, public, and mid-private. Public schools are under government authority (Ministry of Education) and free, supported by tax money. The Ministry of Education provides all the public schools with the books needed for each educational level, for negligible prices and often for free.^{[citation�needed]} Mid-private schools, mainly parochial schools, such as the Ecoles des Saint Coeurs, are those that operate as private schools yet charge fees close to those of public schools. The rest of the tuition fee is subsidized by the government.^{[citation�needed]}

All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. Computer lessons, for example, are now very common in many schools although they are not a part of the traditional mandatory curriculum.^{[citation�needed]} For the schools without computer facilities, any student interested may take up computer courses at private institutions or centers available in almost all the Lebanese districts.

Public schools altogether amount to a total of 192 high schools^{[citation�needed]} and 2,160 elementary schools.Microsoft Encarta Premium 2006. Statistical Maps: Lebanon. Of the high schools, 16 are strictly for boys, 12 are girl schools, and 164 are mixed.^{[citation�needed]} In elementary schools, a total of 453,986 students are enrolled and taught by 26,719 teachers. In all the schools, pupils receive their instructions from the teachers of each subject taught and not one classroom teacher. The number of students per classroom ranges between 15 in selective private schools and 40 in some public schools due to the lack of teachers and facilities.^{[citation�needed]}

Curriculum in Lebanese schools

The main subjects taught are Mathematics, Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Arabic, and French, English or both. Other rotating teachers within the school teach Physical education, Art, and at times library use. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study eighteen different subjects. The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11^th graders choice between two "concentrations": Sciences or Humanities, and 12^th graders choice between four concentrations: Life Sciences (SV), General Sciences (SG), Sociology and Economics (SE), and Humanities and Literature (LH). The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

• Elementary: six years.
• Intermediate: three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
• Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in one of the four concentrations they took in 12^th grade.

These three phases are provided free to all students and are, by law, compulsory. Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Universities and colleges

Campus of the American University of Beirut.
© AUB. Used with permission.

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Following high school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, an institute, or a "high technical school". The number of years to complete each program varies.

Lebanon has twenty-one universities, several of which are internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) was the first English university to open in Lebanon, while the first French university to open was the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ). The twenty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in Arabic, French, or English as these are the most widely used languages in Lebanon. There are four French institutions, seven English, and one Armenian.

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II.

Culture

The Baalbek ruins.

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Main article: Culture of Lebanon

Lebanon has been a major crossroads of civilizations for millennia, and as a result possesses a rich and vibrant culture. Lebanon's wide array of ethnic and religious groups contributes to the country's rich cuisine, musical and literary traditions, and festivals. In general, the Lebanese society is modern, educated, and perhaps comparable to European societies of the Mediterranean. This is particularily true for the urban population and residents of Beirut and Mount Lebanon. The country serves not only as a unique amalgamation of Christians and Muslims, but also as an Arab gateway to Europe and vice versa.

Languages

Even though Arabic is the only official language, most Lebanese are bilingual, speaking both Arabic and French. English has become very popular, especially among university students, as a second or sometimes third language.

Cuisine

Main article: Lebanese cuisine

The Lebanese cuisine combines the sophistication of European cuisines with the exotic ingredients of the Middle East.Joe George. "Lebanon: The Jewel of the Middle East". Retrieved December 3, 2006. Some of the most popular local dishes include Kibbeh—a lamb-and-cracked-wheat dish, often grilled or fried—and Tabbouleh, a salad made with cracked wheat, finely chopped parsley, tomato, onions and cucumber.Microsoft Encarta Premium 2006. Customs of Lebanon. The Lebanese also enjoy eating food from many different regions; fast food has also gained widespread popularity, especially among the Lebanese youth.

Arts and Literature

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Festivals

Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.

People

See also: List of Lebanese people.

Lebanese people in Lebanon and all over the world have made substantial contributions to Lebanon and Humanity. A List of Lebanese people will sum up the contributions of the Lebanese and persons of Lebanese descent worldwide.

Politics